Summary

Summary Unit 31 Assignment 1

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Module
Unit 31 - Computer Animation

Institution
PEARSON

Throughout this report is the work of which achieved me the highest possible grade. All of my work was to distinction standard throughout the 2 year course.

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1. Summary - Unit 31 assignment 1
2. Summary - Unit 31 assignment 3
3. Summary - Unit 31 assignment 2 (part 1)
4. Summary - Unit 31 assignment 2 (part 2)
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Unit 31
Assignment 1
Origins
Persistence of vision

The movement within animation may seem smooth – in reality however animations consist
of a series of individual images joined together and shown at speed [i.e. frames per second].
The animation seems continuous due to the persistence of vision.

Typically [if well-constructed that is] animations seem smoother and less jerky when there
are more frames per second – the more frames shown during the second allows for fewer
gaps; meaning our eye will no longer have to be used in filling the animations lack of frames
[and therefore] the continuity of the animations movement.
Computer animations usually work effectively with only 12 frames per second, this is
enough for the animation to prevent jerkiness within the series of images – more frames
can be added if necessary.
The higher the rate of frames per second the more images are required for the animation.
Cartoons [especially those of which are on a low budget] cannot afford the man hours
required in making a very smooth long cartoon and therefore typically have a reduced rate
of around 8 frames per second – this allows the cartoon to require less images and the
cartoon can then be produced both quicker and more cheaply.

Additional information gathered upon research [regarding the persistence of vision]
Persistence of vision works because the human eye and brain can only process 10 to 12
separate images per second, retaining an image for up to a fifteenth of a second. If a
subsequent image replaces it in this period of time it will create the illusion of continuity.
Original source - https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/explore-animation/0/steps/12222

Persistence of vision refers to the optical illusion that occurs when visual perception of an
object does not cease for some time after the rays of light proceeding from it have ceased
to enter the eye.

This has been believed to be the explanation for motion perception in cinema and animated
films yet scientists has not acknowledged the theorem [since its creation].
What film historians call ‘Persistence of Vision’, psychologists call ‘Positive Afterimages’. The
cause of positive afterimages are assumed to be the result of reflecting persisting activity in
the brain when retinal photoreceptor cells continue to send neural impulses to the occipital
lobe.
Original source - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_of_vision

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Matthew Lloyd-Jones

,Unit 31
Assignment 1
Scientists have created their own theorem regarding the persistence of vision, theorems
such as Beta Movement, this theorem was first suggested by a man under the name of Max
Wertheimer in 1912. Essentially he found that an optical illusion was created when a series
of static images on a screen creates the illusion of a smoothly flowing scene. The illusion
occurred when the frame rate was greater than 10 – 12 separate images per second.
The static images do not physically change yet they give the illusion of motion due to the
sheer speed the images are changed [faster than the eye can see].
This optical illusion is caused by the fact that the human optic nerve responds to changes in
light about 10 cycles per second, so changes about double of this are registered as motion
rather than being separate distinct images.
Original source - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_movement
Pioneers
Only with the people who dared to push the boundaries and test the limits of their
technology has animation been able to develop to what it is today – without them it
would’ve been impossible.
Many people were involved in the creation of the camera and then the motion pictures,
each one of them were necessary in making the animation and film making industry of
today what it is, below I will make mention of three people who revolutionised animation
and were ultimately some of the key pioneers in making animation as wisely renown as it is.
Techniques
William Horner
William Horner invented in 1834 something known as the daedalum, this was later and now
frequently known as the zoetrope [wheel of life]. This became a popular item [the
animations could be changed].

This is an image of a Zoetrope.
Essentially the zoetrope is a cylindrical devices – typically around 30 centimetres [in
diameter] with slits cut into it at equally spaced intervals. Animation strips were placed
inside with images that had only had minute differences. Upon the zoetrope being spun the
user would peer into the openings [the splits] as they spun past – by doing this the

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Matthew Lloyd-Jones

,Unit 31
Assignment 1
animation appeared to be animated. The zoetrope would achieved around 14 fps allowing
for the images to give the appearance of moving naturally. This creation was essential and
the beginning of cinema film.
Thomas Edison
Though already a successful inventor, Thomas Edison was also a pivotal pioneer for the
development of modern animation and cinematography.
Edison worked on improving the efficiency and quality of the telegraph message – upon
experimentation he noticed that the transfer emitted a noise which resembled the spoken
word. Developing this further he found himself able to record and play back voices – using
two needles and a wax-coated cylinder. Upon someone speaking into the mouthpiece one
of the needles would indent the cylinder according to the sound vibrations in the user’s
voice. The other needles purpose was to read the indentations and play back the
recording(s).
Not long after this finding he created something to be known as the phonograph [it was the
first of its kind and was released in 1877]. This became very popular as it could be used for a
number of different things [for example audio books and messages].
Key term
In 1888 Edison and Eadweard Muybridge [who was the inventor of the zoopraxiscope – an
early form of projector whereby images on glass were lit by a lantern and projected onto a
screen producing a continuous moving image] met and Eadweard proposed a collaboration
in making moving images have [upon this] recorded sound. Edison declined [as he thought
the zoopraxiscope was inefficient]. He was however intrigued by the concept proposed.

He later invented his own way to project images – this invention was known as a
kinetoscope, it became the forerunner of modern projection. It worked by using a sheet of
perforated film being moved over a light to give the illusion of movement.

He dedicated his time to combine the moving picture with a pre-recorded sound machine
[this was partly successful], the quality was a concern and it was a difficulty for the
technicians operating the machines to keep the images and sound in time [with each over].
Lumiere brothers
The Lumiere brothers were the first people who had created a camera which was both
portable and which could film. The ‘cinematograph’ is considered the invention which began
the motion pictures. It used 35mm perforated celluloid film. Although Edison had preceded
them in projecting film to an audience the first screening made by the Lumiere brothers is
considered by film historians as the birth of the cinema.

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Matthew Lloyd-Jones

, Unit 31
Assignment 1

This is an image of a cinematograph.
Funnily upon the brothers first film [The Arrival of a Train] it showed a train entering a
station diagonally across the screen and reportedly it had audiences screaming and ducking
out of the way! It was clear that this was a new and exciting medium – it was clear this was
going to be massive.
The technology was sufficiently developed and filmmakers became interested in the
entertainment aspect of film – they began producing historical, fantasy and horror movies.
As the demand increased, music halls and theatres were converted to allow for the showing
of movie pictures – audiences went wild to see the new exciting shows.
Traditional animation techniques
There is a large variety of techniques available to the animators of today, of which I will
discuss below.
Draw animation – this technique uses hand drawn [or painted] frames onto a frame of film.
This technique is similar to the way of which a flipbook works – in that each frame is drawn
slightly differently from the previous one. When played at speed the frames give the illusion
of movement. The advantage is that the individual frames can be drawn to exceptional
detailed. The disadvantage – this takes time! To combat the time it takes some cartoons
have decreased the number of frames per sound – the obvious side effect being is that the
cartoons were not as smooth and therefore less appealing.

Another method to save both time and money is to use limited animation [where the cells
are used over and over again].

Images are drawn onto cels and then overlaid to create a composite image. While one cel
would provide the background the others would contain the moving part(s). The
background therefore could remain the same throughout the scene and only the moving
cels would need to be redrawn.

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Matthew Lloyd-Jones

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