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AQA Sociology A level Paper 2: Families & Households (Topics 1 - 7)
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A* student for Sociology! Topics include: 1. Couples 2. Childhood 3. Theories of Family 4. Demography 5. Changing Family Patterns 6. Family Diversity 7. Social Policy I hope my notes will help you gain an A* too!

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  • April 17, 2019
  • 33
  • 2017/2018
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​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​COUPLES

What​ ​is​ ​a​ ​family/household?
๏ Household - person living alone / group of people living together = may / may not be related to one another.
Family:​ ​1​ ​way​ ​of​ ​defining​ ​a​ ​family​ ​is​ ​a​ ​monogamous​ ​marriage​ ​between​ ​a​ ​man​ ​+​ ​woman​ ​+​ ​their​ ​children,​ ​all
sharing​ ​the​ ​same​ ​house.​ ​This​ ​nuclear​ ​family​ ​is​ ​seen​ ​as​ ​ideal.



[​ ​THE​ ​DOMESTIC​ ​DIVISION​ ​OF​ ​LABOUR​ ​]
๏ The roles men + women have in housework, childcare + paid work.
๏ Sociologists are interested in whether men + women share domestic tasks equally.


PARSONS​:​ ​Instrumental​ ​+​ ​Expressive​ ​roles.
๏ Nuclear family - roles of husbands & wives are segregated.​ ​There’s​ ​a​ ​clear​ ​D.O.L​ ​between​ ​spouses:
#​ ​Husband:​​ ​Instrumental​ ​role,​ ​geared​ ​towards​ ​achieving​ ​success​ ​at​ ​work​ ​+​ ​provide​ ​for​ ​the​ ​family​ ​financially
(BREADWINNER)
#​ ​W​ife:​ ​Expres​ ​role,​ ​geared​ ​towards​ ​pri​ ​sociali​ ​of​ ​children,​ ​meeting​ ​family’s​ ​emotional​ ​needs.​ ​full​ ​time​ ​housewife
(HOMEMAKER)
๏ D.O.L​ ​is​ ​based​ ​on​ ​biological​ ​differences,​ ​women​ ​are​ ​naturally​ ​suited​ ​to​ ​the​ ​nurturing​ ​role​ ​+​ ​men​ ​to​ ​provide.
๏ This​ ​D.O.L​ ​benefits​ ​men,​ ​women,​ ​children​ ​+​ ​wider​ ​society.​ ​Some​ ​conservatives​ ​(New​ ​Right)​ ​also​ ​hold​ ​this​ ​view.

Criticisms
-​ ​Young​ ​+​ ​Willmott​ ​(1962)​ ​-​ ​Men​ ​now​ ​taking​ ​‘greater​ ​share’​ ​of​ ​domestic​ ​tasks​ ​+​ ​⇧wives​ ​-​ ​‘wage​ ​earners’
-​ ​Feminist​​ ​-​ ​D.O.L​ ​ ​is​ ​NOT​ ​natural​ ​+​ ​D.O.L​ ​only​ ​benefits​ ​men.



ELIZABETH​ ​BOTT​​ ​(1957):​ ​Distinguishes​ ​between​ ​2​ ​types​ ​of​ ​conjugal​ ​roles​ ​(roles​ ​within​ ​marriage)
~​ ​Segregated​ ​conjugal​ ​roles:​ ​Roles​ ​are​ ​separate​ ​(instrumental​ ​+​ ​expressive)​ ​ ​Leisure​ ​activities​ ​are​ ​separate.
~​ ​Joint​ ​conjugal​ ​roles:​​ ​Couples​ ​share​ ​tasks​ ​e.g​ ​housework/​ ​childcare.​ ​Spend​ ​leisure​ ​time​ ​together.

​ ​EV:​ ​Young​ ​&​ ​Willmott​​ s​ tudied​ ​in​ ​Bethnal​ ​Green​ ​Ldn:​ ​identified​ ​a​ ​pattern​ ​of​ ​S.C.R​ ​ ​in​ ​the​ ​trad​ ​w/c​ ​extended

families.​ ​(1950s).​ ​Men:​​ ​breadwinners​ ​(spent​ ​leisure​ ​time​ ​with​ ​mates)​ ​Women​:​ ​full-time​ ​housewives,​ ​with​ ​sole
responsibility​ ​for​ ​housework/childcare,​ ​helped​ ​by​ ​their​ ​female​ ​relatives.​ ​Limited​ ​leisure​ ​time​ ​-​ ​spent​ ​with​ ​female
kin.



The​ ​Symmetrical​ ​Family
๏ Young​ ​&​ ​Willmott​​ ​(1973)​ ​take​ ​a​ ​‘march​ ​of​ ​progress’​ ​view.
๏ Family​ ​life​ ​is​ ​gradually​ ​improving,​ ​more​ ​equal.
๏ There​ ​has​ ​been​ ​a​ ​trend​ ​towards​ ​joint​ ​conjugal​ ​roles​ ​+​ ​the​ ​‘symmetrical​ ​family’​ ​where​ ​the​ ​roles​ ​of​ ​husband​ ​+​ ​wives
are​ ​now​ ​much​ ​more​ ​similar.
๏ Women​ ​now​ ​go​ ​out​ ​to​ ​work​ ​(part​ ​time)​ ​+​ ​men​ ​help​ ​housework​ ​/​ ​childcare.
๏ Couples​ ​spend​ ​leisure​ ​time​ ​together,​ ​instead​ ​of​ ​separately​ ​with​ ​workmates​ ​or​ ​female​ ​relatives.
๏ In​ ​their​ ​study,​ ​they​ ​also​ ​found​ ​symmetrical​ ​family​ ​was​ ​more​ ​common​ ​among​ ​the​ ​younger​ ​couples.
TIB..
#​ ​Changes​ ​in​ ​women’s​ ​position​ ​(married​ ​women​ ​going​ ​out​ ​to​ ​work)
#​ ​Geographical​ ​mobility​ ​(more​ ​couples​ ​living​ ​away​ ​from​ ​where​ ​they​ ​grew​ ​up)
#​ ​Higher​ ​standards​ ​of​ ​living
๏ All​ ​of​ ​these​ ​factor​ ​are​ ​inter-linked​ ​(women​ ​work,​ ​more​ ​income,​ ​higher​ ​standard​ ​of​ ​living​ ​etc)



1

,A​ ​Feminist​ ​View​ ​Of​ ​Housework
๏ Reject​ ​‘march​ ​of​ ​progress​ ​view’
๏ Little​ ​has​ ​changed​ ​(women​ ​still​ ​do​ ​most​ ​housework)
๏ Family​ ​+​ ​society​ ​are​ ​patriarchal.​ ​Women​ ​have​ ​a​ ​subordinate​ ​role​ ​within​ ​the​ ​family.
#​ ​ANN​ ​OAKLEY​​ ​(1974)​ ​criticises​ ​Young​ ​&​ ​WIllmott
๏ Family​ ​is​ ​not​ ​symmetrical
๏ Y&W’s claim are exaggerated. Although they found husbands ‘helped’, these tasks are often small. This is not
convincing​ ​evidence.
๏ OAKLEY​ ​found​ ​that​ ​some​ ​husbands​ ​helped,​ ​but​ ​no​ ​evidence​ ​of​ ​a​ ​trend​ ​towards​ ​symmetry.
๏ 15%​ ​of​ ​husbands​ ​had​ ​a​ ​high​ ​level​ ​of​ ​participation​ ​in​ ​housework​ ​//​ ​Only​ ​25%​ ​of​ ​husbands​ ​had​ ​a​ ​high​ ​level​ ​of
participation​ ​in​ ​childcare.
TMT​​ ​men​ ​took​ ​the​ ​more​ ​pleasurable​ ​tasks​ ​=​ ​mothers​ ​lost​ ​rewards​ ​of​ ​childcare​ ​(playing​ ​with​ ​children)​ ​&​ ​spends​ ​more
time​ ​on​ ​housework.
#​ ​MARY​ ​BOULTON​​ ​(1983)​ ​supports​ ​OAKLEY
๏ <20%​ ​of​ ​husbands​ ​had​ ​a​ ​major​ ​role​ ​in​ ​childcare.
๏ Y&W​ ​didn’t​ ​look​ ​at​ ​the​ ​responsibilities,​ ​only​ ​tasks​ ​involved​ ​with​ ​childcare.
๏ It​ ​was​ ​almost​ ​always​ ​the​ ​mother​ ​who​ ​would​ ​be​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​the​ ​child’s​ ​well-being.
TMT​​ ​Y&W​ ​exaggerates​ ​men’s​ ​contribution.
#​ ​WARDE​ ​&​ ​HETHERINGTON​ ​supports​ ​OAKLEY
๏ Sex-typing​ ​of​ ​domestic​ ​tasks​ ​remained​ ​strong.
E.g​ ​wives​ ​were​ ​30x​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​be​ ​the​ ​last​ ​person​ ​to​ ​have​ ​done​ ​the​ ​washing.
๏ Found​ ​men​ ​would​ ​only​ ​do​ ​female​ ​tasks​ ​when​ ​their​ ​partners​ ​were​ ​not​ ​around​ ​to​ ​do​ ​them.
๏ But,​ ​they​ ​did​ ​find​ ​evidence​ ​of​ ​a​ ​change​ ​in​ ​attitude​ ​among​ ​younger​ ​men.​ ​They​ ​no​ ​longer​ ​assume​ ​women​ ​should​ ​do
the​ ​housework.



[​ ​ARE​ ​COUPLES​ ​BECOMING​ ​MORE​ ​EQUAL?​ ​]
The​ ​Impact​ ​Of​ ​Paid​ ​Work
๏ Many more wives go out to work either part time or full time.
๏ The MOP view would argue this means it is leading to a more equal division of domestic tasks. Men are becoming
more​ ​involved​ ​in​ ​housework​ ​+​ ​childcare​ ​+​ ​women​ ​are​ ​becoming​ ​more​ ​involved​ ​in​ ​paid​ ​work.
๏ Feminists would argues TMT women now have to carry a ‘dual​ ​burden’​ ​of​ ​paid​ ​work​ ​+​ ​domestic​ ​work.


The​ ​March​ ​Of​ ​Progress​ ​View​ ​(MOP)
>​ ​GERSHUNY​​ ​(1994)
๏ argues women​ ​working​ ​full-time​ ​is​ ​leading​ ​to​ ​more​ ​equal​ ​division​ ​of​ ​labour​ ​in​ ​the​ ​home
๏ Used​ ​time​ ​studies,​ ​found​ ​women​ ​working​ ​full​ ​time​ ​did​ ​less​ ​domestic​ ​work,​ ​than​ ​other​ ​women.
>​ ​SULLIVAN​​ ​(2000)
๏ Analysed data collected in 1975, 1987 & 1997.
๏ Found​ ​a​ ​trend​ ​towards​ ​women​ ​doing​ ​a​ ​smaller​ ​share​ ​of​ ​the​ ​domestic​ ​work​ ​+​ ​men​ ​doing​ ​more.
๏ Found​ ​an​ ​increase​ ​with​ ​couples​ ​of​ ​equal​ ​division​ ​of​ ​labour.
๏ This​ ​supports​ ​the​ ​MOP​ ​view.

The​ ​Feminist​ ​View
๏ Women​ ​going​ ​into​ ​work​ ​has​ ​not​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​greater​ ​equality​ ​in​ ​the​ ​division​ ​of​ ​domestic​ ​labour.
๏ BSA​ ​(British​ ​Social​ ​Attitudes)​ ​Shows​ ​in​ ​2012:​ ​Men​ ​on​ ​average​ ​did​ ​8​ ​hours​ ​of​ ​housework​ ​a​ ​week.​ ​Women​ ​did​ ​13
hrs.
๏ TMT​ ​Women​ ​did​ ​twice​ ​as​ ​much​ ​housework​ ​than​ ​men.
EV:​ ​This​ ​survey​ ​does​ ​not​ ​use​ ​qualitative​ ​data​ ​=​ ​cannot​ ​have​ ​a​ ​full​ ​view​ ​on​ ​the​ ​differences​ ​in​ ​the​ ​tasks​ ​men​ ​&​ ​women
perform.



2

, Emotion​ ​work​ ​&​ ​the​ ​triple​ ​shift.
๏ Feminists​ ​notes​ ​that​ ​women​ ​often​ ​perform​ ​emotion​ ​work,​ ​housework​ ​&​ ​paid​ ​work​ (​ triple​ ​shift).
Taking​ ​Responsibility​ ​For​ ​Quality​ ​Time
๏ SOUTHERN​​ ​argues,​ ​mothers​ ​have​ ​to​ ​schedule​ ​+​ ​manage​ ​the​ ​family’s​ ​quality​ ​time.
๏ This​ ​has​ ​become​ ​more​ ​difficult​ ​in​ ​today’s​ ​late​ ​modern​ ​society,​ ​because​ ​there​ ​are​ ​social​ ​changes​ ​(the​ ​emergence​ ​of
the​ ​24/7​ ​society​ ​[ambulance]​ ​)​ ​+​ ​flexible​ ​working​ ​patterns.
TMT​ ​Mothers​ ​have​ ​to​ ​balance​ ​the​ ​demand​ ​of​ ​work,​ ​personal​ ​leisure​ ​time,​ ​+​ ​the​ ​family.

Conclusions:
#​ ​There​ ​may​ ​have​ ​been​ ​some​ ​movement​ ​towards​ ​an​ ​equal​ ​D.O.L​ ​but​ ​not​ ​very​ ​much.​ ​There​ ​is​ ​conflicting​ ​evidence
on​ ​how​ ​much​ ​time​ ​men​ ​&​ ​women​ ​spend​ ​on​ ​domestic​ ​tasks.​ ​Findings​ ​E.g​ ​Gershuny​ ​suggests​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​movement
to​ ​greater​ ​equality,​ ​whereas​ ​other​ ​evidences​ ​e.g​ ​BSA​ ​indicates​ ​continuing​ ​inequality.


Explaining​ ​The​ ​Gender​ ​Division​ ​Of​ ​Labour
CROMPTON​ ​&​ ​LYONETTE​ ​identify​ ​2​ ​different​ ​explanations​ ​for​ ​the​ ​unequal​ ​D.O.L
1)​ ​THE​ ​CULTURAL​ ​EXP​ ​OF​ ​INEQUALITY: 2)​ ​THE​ ​MATERIAL​ ​EXP​ ​OF​ ​INEQUALITY:
-​ ​D.O.L​ ​is​ ​determined​ ​by​ ​patriarchal​ ​N&V​ ​that -​ ​Women​ ​generally​ ​earn​ ​less​ ​than​ ​men​ ​=​ ​are​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​to
shape​ ​the​ ​gender​ ​roles​ ​in​ ​our​ ​culture.​ ​Women do​ ​housework​ ​/​ ​child​ ​care.
perform​ ​more​ ​domestic​ ​labour,​ ​because​ ​that​ ​is This​ ​will​ ​only​ ​change,​ ​if​ ​women​ ​earn​ ​the​ ​same​ ​as​ ​their
what​ ​society​ ​expects​ ​the​ ​to​ ​do.​ ​This​ ​will​ ​only partners,​ ​or​ ​if​ ​women​ ​join​ ​the​ ​labour​ ​force.
change,​ ​if​ ​attitudes​ ​about​ ​gender​ ​change.
E.g​ ​RAMOS:​​ ​Found​ ​that​ ​where​ ​the​ ​woman​ ​is​ ​the
E.g​​ ​GERSHUNY:​​ ​Found​ ​couples​ ​whose full-time​ ​breadwinner​ ​+​ ​the​ ​man​ ​is​ ​unemployed,​ ​he​ ​does​ ​as
parents​ ​had​ ​a​ ​more​ ​equal​ ​R.S​ ​are​ ​more​ ​likely​ ​to much​ ​domestic​ ​labour​ ​as​ ​she​ ​does.
share​ ​housework​ ​equally​ ​themselves.​ ​TMT
E.g​ ​KAN:​ ​Found​ ​that​ ​for​ ​every​ ​£10,000​ ​a​ ​year​ ​a​ ​woman
parental​ ​roles​ ​are​ ​important.​ ​Argues,​ ​social​ ​values
earns,​ ​she​ ​does​ ​2​ ​hrs​ ​less​ ​housework​ ​per​ ​week.
are​ ​adapting​ ​e.g​ ​women​ ​are​ ​working​ ​full​ ​time​ ​+
that​ ​men​ ​should​ ​do​ ​more​ ​domestic​ ​work.
E.g​ ​ DUNNE:​​ ​Studied​ ​37​ ​LESBIAN​ ​couples. However,​ ​ SULLIVAN​​ ​found​ ​women​ ​continue​ ​to​ ​earn
less​ ​than​ ​men,​ ​in​ ​7/8​ ​households,​ ​men​ ​earn​ ​more​ ​TIB
Found​ ​they​ ​had​ ​more​ ​symmetrical​ ​R.Ss,​ ​because
there​ ​was​ ​no​ ​traditional​ ​heterosexual​ ​‘gender women, are more likely to work part-time. ஃ COMPTON
scripts’,​ ​this​ ​allows​ ​them​ ​to​ ​create​ ​a​ ​more​ ​equal concludes​ ​there​ ​is​ ​no​ ​immediate​ ​likelihood​ ​of​ ​a​ ​more​ ​equal
R.S.​ ​By​ ​contrast,​ ​heterosexuals​ ​are​ ​under​ ​pressure D.O.L,​ ​if​ ​this​ ​depends​ ​on​ ​economic​ ​equality​ ​between​ ​the
to​ ​conform​ ​to​ ​the​ ​gender​ ​scripts. sexes.


CONCLUSIONS:
๏ There​ ​is​ ​some​ ​evidence​ ​that​ ​women​ ​being​ ​in​ ​paid​ ​work​ ​leads​ ​to​ ​more​ ​equality​ ​in​ ​D.O.L.​ ​Especially​ ​if​ ​she’s​ ​in
full-time​ ​work.
๏ Feminists​ ​>​ ​The​ ​extent​ ​of​ ​this​ ​is​ ​limited,​ ​women​ ​carry​ ​a​ ​dual​ ​burden​ ​/​ ​triple​ ​shift.​ ​The​ ​root​ ​of​ ​the​ ​problem​ ​is
patriarchy.​ ​Patriarchal​ ​N&V​ ​shape​ ​society’s​ ​expectations​ ​about​ ​the​ ​roles​ ​men/women​ ​ought​ ​to​ ​perform.


[​ ​RESOURCES​ ​&​ ​DECISION​ ​-​ ​MAKING​ ​IN​ ​HOUSEHOLDS​ ​]
๏ There​ ​is​ ​inequality​ ​in​ ​how​ ​family’s​ ​resources​ ​are​ ​shared​ ​out​ ​between​ ​men​ ​&​ ​women.
๏ This​ ​is​ ​linked​ ​to​ ​who​ ​controls​ ​the​ ​family’s​ ​income​ ​+​ ​who​ ​has​ ​the​ ​power​ ​to​ ​make​ ​decisions​ ​about​ ​how​ ​it​ ​is​ ​spent.


BARRETT​ ​&​ ​MCINTOSH:
๏ Men​ ​gain​ ​more​ ​from​ ​women’s​ ​domestic​ ​work​ ​than​ ​they​ ​give​ ​back​ ​in​ ​financial​ ​support.
๏ Men​ ​usually​ ​make​ ​the​ ​decisions​ ​about​ ​spending​ ​on​ ​important​ ​items.

๏ Research​ ​shows,​ ​that​ ​family​ ​members​ ​do​ ​not​ ​share​ ​resources​ ​E.g​ ​money​ ​equally.​ ​The​ ​women​ ​is​ ​most​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​be


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