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Summary AQA A-Level Sociology Crime and Deviance (Paper 3)

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Unit 4 SCLY4 - Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods; Stratification and Differentiation with Theory and Methods (7192)

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AQA

These notes explore Crime and Deviance, which is one of the topics that appears in AQA A Level Sociology Paper 3 (worth 50 marks: 62.5% of Paper 3). They have been structured with the help of the actual exam specification provided by AQA, ensuring that everything has been covered. Other topics are ...

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sociology
crime and deviance

Study Level
A/AS Level
Examinator
AQA
Subject
Sociology
Unit
Unit 4 SCLY4 - Crime and Deviance with Theory and Methods; Stratification and Differentiation with Theory and Methods (7192)

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5 items

1. Summary - Aqa a-level sociology families and households (paper 2)
2. Summary - Aqa a-level sociology education with methods in context (paper 1)
3. Summary - Aqa a-level sociology beliefs in society (paper 2)
4. Summary - Aqa a-level sociology crime and deviance (paper 3)
5. Summary - Aqa a-level sociology theory and methods (paper 1 and 3)
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Crime and Deviance

Crime - Behaviour that breaks the law and is subject to formal sanctions.
Deviance - Behaviour that breaks social norms and is subject to informal sanctions.
These are social constructions as their meaning depends on culture, time (in history) and situation. As
such, there is no universal agreement towards these concepts.

Crime, deviance, social order and social control:

Functionalist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and social control -:
Emile Durkheim - Thought that crime is inevitable and functional in all healthy societies.
 Too little crime means a highly repressive society and one which doesn't adapt or change.
 Too much crime leads to anomie (normlessness/breakdown of social control) making society
dysfunctional.
 Society has to achieve the right balance in terms of the level of crime.
The positive functions of crime (Emile Durkheim):
 To define boundaries - crime causes a response, which outlines the consequences of this
behaviour and makes it clear to society that this behaviour is unacceptable (e.g. media reports
of punishments for criminals).
 To encourage social change - boundaries may eventually move and allow social change so
society can adapt and evolve (e.g. gay rights activism).
 Social solidarity/social cohesion - the aftermath of criminal acts can actually draw members of
society together by uniting them against the act and reinforcing the collective conscience (e.g.
communities uniting after a terror attack).
The positive functions of crime (Albert Cohen):
 Acts as a safety valve - behaviours which release frustration without threatening existing social
institutions like the family (e.g. watching pornography, graffiti, gambling etc.).
 Acts as a warning valve - behaviours that act as a signal (usually politically) that an institution is
not functioning properly (e.g. truancy from school, an increase in crime, riots etc.).
Criticisms of Durkheim and Cohen:
 Explain the effects of crime but not the cause of it.
 Ignores victims (e.g. of mugging, domestic violence etc.).
 Say that crime is functional but it isn't entirely clear who it is functional for.

Robert Merton (Strain Theory 1957) - Attempts to explain crime in America and claims that most of it
relates to the American dream, which places a great deal on material success.
 Most people share society's common goals and there are legitimate means to achieve them.
 However, society is structurally unequal - not all people have the same opportunity to achieve
success through these legitimate means.
 This leads to strain (anomie) between culturally approved goals and culturally approved means.
This depends on individual response to the strain and their position within the structure.
Adaptations (responses) to strain:
Adaptation Accep Accept Description
t goals legitimat
e means

, Conformist Yes Yes The most common adaptation to strain where members of a
s society conform to both goals and the means of achieving them.
Innovators Yes No Least likely to succeed through means putting greater pressure
(Deviant) on them to deviate. Usually have low educational qualities and
turn to crime, which promises greater rewards than low
opportunity jobs (e.g. shoplifter, drug dealer, criminal).
Ritualists No Yes More common amongst the lower middle class who have been
(Deviant) strongly socialised to conform to social norms, which prevents
them from turning to crime. Have given up striving for success
(e.g. a bored bank employee).
Retreatists No No The least common response where individuals are unable to
(Deviant) achieve success, abandoning both goals and means. They 'drop
out' of society (e.g. homeless person, psychotics).
Rebels Yes/ Yes/No Reject both mainstream goals and means and replace them with
(Deviant) No alternative goals and means (e.g. the traveller community, a nun
living in a monastery).
Strengths of Merton's Strain Theory:
 Explains why some groups conform and others are deviant.
 Explains why most crime in America is property-related.
 Explains why crime rates might be higher for the working class (they are blocked from achieving
success through legitimate means).
 Explains why some groups individuals are considered deviant i.e. the homeless or religious sects.
Criticisms of Merton's Strain Theory:
 Assumes we all have the same goals i.e. a value consensus.
 Assumes that everyone's goals are utilitarian (practical and often money-related).
 Over-emphasises individual responses and ignores collective responses attributed to class,
gender and ethnicity.
 It doesn't explain crime such as sex crime, hate crime, state crime (e.g. genocide), discrimination
or terrorism.

Subcultural theorists - See crime as a largely working-class phenomenon and subcultures act as a way of
dealing with strain in society as they provide an alternative opportunity for those who are denied
legitimate opportunities.
 Therefore, subcultures are functional for their members - not society.
 Such theories build on Merton's Strain Theory.
Albert Cohen - Argues that working-class youths believe in the success of goals in mainstream culture
but their experiences of failure in the education system, living in deprived areas and poor chances in the
job market mean that they have little opportunity to achieve success through legitimate means.
 Feel that they are denied respectable status mainstream society and so experience status
frustration, reacting to this situation by developing alternative values i.e. a delinquent
subculture.
 Cohen identifies elements of revenge within this subculture, which explains why many youth
crimes are not motivated by financial rewards.
 Crimes committed (e.g. anti-social behaviour) are likely to be motivated by peer group status,
known as non-utilitarian crimes.
Types of subculture (Albert Cohen):

,  Delinquent subculture - working class youths who react to their status frustration by developing
alternative values (e.g. commit minor crime such as theft, vandalism, intimidation or threatening
behaviour) to achieve respect and status in their peer group.
Cloward and Ohlin - Argue that Cohen's analysis of status frustration doesn't allow for the diversity of
responses shown by working class youths, and the varied circumstances of them leads to three types of
delinquent subculture.
Types of subculture (Cloward and Ohlin):
 Criminal subcultures - part of established criminal network (learning from criminal role models),
are successful through illegitimate means and commit utilitarian crimes (e.g. theft or drug
dealing) as highly successful criminals.
 Conflict subcultures - grow up in areas with few successful criminal role models, can only
succeed through conflict and take their frustration out by committing non-utilitarian crimes (e.g.
street crime, gang warfare etc.).
 Retreatist subcultures - not part of established criminal networks and are not successful through
illegitimate means. This response is a retreat into drug addiction and alcoholism, paid for
through committing utilitarian crimes (e.g. petty theft, shoplifting, prostitution etc.).
These different responses to status frustration depend on working class youth's opportunities and
circumstances.
Strengths of subcultural strain theories:
 Explain non-utilitarian crime.
 Explain patterns in crime statistics (e.g. why young, working class males are most likely to
commit crime).
 Explain different types of delinquent subcultures (Cloward and Ohlin).
Criticisms of subcultural strain theories:
 Over-predict working class crime and ignore crimes of the wealthy (Marxist criticism).
 Assume working class youths share the same goals as society in the first place.
 Tend to focus on males and working-class youths, thus ignoring females and middle-class
youths.

Travis Hirschi (control theory) - Different from other theories in that it explains why people conform i.e.
what stops people from committing crime as opposed to what causes it. Most people are naturally
selfish and potential criminals; however, social bonds with other people and to society encourage
conformity (CIAB):
 Commitment - to future success (e.g. work, qualifications, raising a family and building a
legitimate future). This social bond can be strengthened through the education system or
mentoring individuals.
 Involvement - in paid and unpaid work, family life and social life (meaning little opportunity and
less time in general to commit crime). This social bond can be strengthened by making people
busy; youth clubs or work.
 Attachment - to others around us and caring about the wishes of our peers/family (including
relationships with other conformers). This social bond can be strengthened by encouraging
relationships or providing family counselling.
 Beliefs - what is morally right or wrong (people respect the need to obey the law). This social
bond can be strengthened through talks about victims and the consequences of crime.
If these social bonds are weak, criminal behaviour is more likely to occur.

,Differential association - Theory developed by Edwin Sutherland proposing that through interaction
with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behaviour.

Marxist and neo-Marxist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and social control -:
1. Criminogenic capitalism (David Gordon) - Argues that capitalism causes crime and that crime is
a rational response to capitalist values i.e. materialism and self-interest. Therefore, crime is
found within all social classes:
 Amongst the working class - low wages, poverty, capitalist advertising, frustration and
alienation.
 Amongst the middle class - corporate crime (crime committed by a business) and white-collar
crime (crime committed by a person in a position of power).
2. Law making - Laws are created and passed by the ruling class to reflect and impose their
ideologies.
William Chambliss - Argues that private property is at the heart of capitalism - laws passed by the state
protect this property.
Laureen Snider - Argues that the state is reluctant to pass laws which threaten the profitability of large
corporations (e.g. strict strike action laws).
3. Selective law enforcement - Crime statistics show that crime is predominately a working-class
activity. Police (agents of the state) monitor certain areas, groups and types of crime more
heavily. This gives the impression that crime is a working-class activity, which diverts attention
away from crimes of the powerful, which ultimately have a greater economic toll on society.
4. Ideological functions of crime and law (Frank Pearce) - All laws benefit capitalism, even though
they sometimes appear to be in place for the working class (e.g. health and safety laws). Any
laws that solely exist to benefit the working class are not rigorously enforced anyway. Statistics
show that crime is a working-class activity, which divides them and takes any blame away from
capitalism.

Policing the crisis in capitalism (Stuart Hall et al. 1979) - The ruling class usually maintain control
through consent (hegemony). However, the 1970s showed a 'crisis in capitalism' (rising unemployment,
powerful unions, protest and civil unrest).
 The ruling class must use legitimate force to gain control i.e. having a good reason.
 Media reports about 'mugging' (a supposedly new crime in Britain with racial links) meant that
Black youths became the scapegoat for mugging (as they were deeply affected by social
conditions) to distract away from the real problems.
 A 129% increase was reported by politicians and the media.
 The public were persuaded that this crime was caused by immigrants and this divided the
working class on race grounds.
 The government were able to resort to the use of direct force such as military-style policing to
control the working class - legitimised by the threat of mugging and violence, allowing the
government to gain hegemonic control.
Overall, Stuart Hall's study shows how the ruling class are able to gain control over the working class
through the use of direct force and the media when their power is threatened in order to re-establish
hegemony.

Critical criminology - Theoretical perspective in criminology which focuses on challenging traditional
understandings and uncovering false beliefs about crime and criminal justice, often but not exclusively
by taking a conflict perspective, such as Marxism.

, Strengths of Marxist and neo-Marxist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and social control:
 Explain how crime is a result of social conditions and due to class inequality (David Gordon).
 Show how inaccurate crime statistics are and how they conceal the extent of corporate and
white-collar crime (e.g. selective law enforcement). Therefore, they use critical criminology to
uncover the false beliefs about crime.
 Show how crime is not just a working-class activity and does exist amongst the powerful.
Criticisms of Marxist and neo-Marxist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and social control:
 Crime still occurs in communist countries.
 They don't provide a realistic solution to end crime.
 Over-emphasise how class inequality is linked to crime and ignore other inequalities relating to
gender and ethnicity.
 Over-emphasise property-related crime and don't explain violent or sexual crimes.
 Tend to see crime as a natural reaction to capitalism - individuals can still choose not to commit
crime.

Labelling theory of crime, deviance, social order and social control -:

The social construction of crime - Crime is not inherently 'criminal' in itself; instead, it is a result of
societal reaction to it.
Reaction can vary according to who commits the act, where it is committed, when it is committed and
who it is observed by. Crime is a result of labelling. Therefore, it is socially constructed.
Policy implications of labelling theory:
 Negative labelling encourages further crime.
 The CJS should make and enforce fewer rules.
 It should protect identities and avoid stigmatisation as much as possible.
 This would aid rehabilitation and reduce secondary deviance.

The effects of labelling -:
Howard Becker - Argues that "deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label." It is a master status
in the sense that it colours all other statuses possessed by an individual.
 Labels (e.g. criminal) override individuals' status as a parent, worker, neighbour and friend.
 Therefore, people respond to others in terms of this label and the negative characteristics that
comes with it.
 This deviant label may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy whereby "the deviant application
becomes the controlling one."
Jock Young - Supports Becker's ideas through his study of 'hippie' marijuana users in Notting Hill,
London.
 After the police labelled the hippies as good for nothing drug addicts, this led to a deviant self-
concept that enabled deviant norms and values to develop.
 The hippies felt like outsiders, and so formed a deviant subculture which reinforced their
deviant self-concept.
 As the police reacted more strongly against the deviants, the deviants did the same back (e.g.
grew their hair longer, smoked more and wore more unconventional clothes).
Aaron Cicourel - The negotiation of justice - justice is not fixed and can be negotiated by individuals.

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